texts and contexts of the oldest runic inscriptions

Looijenga, Tineke. Texts and contexts of the oldest runic inscriptions. Leiden, NLD. Brill academic publishers, 2003.

The emergence of Runic writing

            Before extensive interaction between the Germanic tribes, and the Roman empire there is little to no evidence that Germanic tribes had a real concept of personal ownership, at least where the land is concerned. Scholars agree that Germanic tribes probably operated in a similar way to earlier celts. Although some personal property was owned, and there is the suggestion that cattle was privately owned, but the land was worked in a more communal way, meaning food and wealth that comes from excess food was al had in common amongst Germanic tribes.

            After interacting with the romans we find that land is being owned privately. The ownership of land began creating distinct classes within the Germanic society. The emergence of distinct classes is found around 100 AD and onward by an increase in battles between Germanic peoples through out the Rhine, and s far away as den mark.

            The emergence of social classes is very important for the creation, and use of writing. Who ever created writing would have needed enough free time to learn to read, and write in a foreign language so they could thoroughly understand the concept of reading and writing. After the concept of an alphabet was understood, it could be modified to fit the life style and culture of your own people. In this way futhark most likely came into existence.

            It is most likely that runic writing was inspired by roman writing, meaning that we should be able to find extensive clues with roman and Germanic cultural exchanges, and we can find many clues.

            The first bit of evidence we have is the knowledge that german tribes made a decent living by enlisting large numbers of German soldiers as merceneries for the Roman military. Those who served as merceneries were often given Roman citizenship after an honorable service of about 20-25 years. (merceneries retired at the age of 40) these soldiers would have often returned to their homelands after living amongst romans for all of their adult lives, it is not hard to believe that some of them (and many of them served as officers) would have had to learn to read and write to function properly in the Roman military.

            One thing that was granted to Roman soldiers after honorable service was often land, this may be where the idea of owning land came into the Germanic life style.

            One important change in culture was a decline in the customary cremation that Germanic tribes practiced. Germanic tribes begin instead practicing (mostly for the very wealthy) inhuman burials, where you bury the body with their posessions. These finds have been extremely valuable because they show us what Germanic peoples valued, and it gives us quite a few examples of runic inscriptions. Many older men were buried with roman goods, like golden drinking cups, and roman spurs, warriors tended to be buried with their weapons, and some older men were also buried with their weapons (suggesting they had been warriors).  Not only do the roman goods suggest an increased interest in the roman way of life, but also with the burial ritual it suggests a roman way of thinking.

            Runic writing was developed in the early first century AD. It was most likely created in the southern rhine region, because this region has the most influence with Romans. Regions to the north have very little evidence for working as merceneries for the Romans, they were also a pre-literate society. The chances of a pre-literate society who didn’t actively involve themselves with a totally literate society understanding and coming up with their own alphabet, is very unlikely.

            The only issue with this though is that the earliest runic inscriptions are found very far north, in Denmark, which is a long way from the lower Rhine. Why is it that evidence for the Futhark can be found so far away? It may have to do with specific alliances, and trade routes between the northern and southern tribes.

            The earliest Runic find, discussed earlier, a comb that reads ‘Harja’ is most likely a comb that originated in a southern Germanic tribe also known as “harii” it is possible that this southern tribe either traded with, or had an alliance with a powerful tribe in the north, and that explains why some of the earlier finds are found as far north as they are.

            After Futhark was created and taught to a select few, it is very easy to believe that it was kept at least semi secret. Rune has one meaning, which is to carve, or furrow, which is a suggestion that it was mostly carved into items, but a second meaning for Rune is ‘secret, something hidden’. It is not hard to believe that after the first soldiers came up with Futhark, it spread to craftsmen. Futhark became a special secret among soldiers and craftsman. A craftsman would only share the secret of futhark with other craftsman, adding to the allure and prestige of their work.

            There is evidence that many soldiers were able to inscribe their names, or their marks in runic, but it is very likely that the majority of soldiers were not literate, but just copied down their own symbols from a master copy. The evidence for this is that most of the potsherds with markings of ownership or ‘makers marks’ appear to be simply copied down, and sloppily.

            Runes were used for may different purposes, and the giving of gifts with ones own name inscribed in the gift had significant meaning, depending upon who was giving the gift, and who was receiving.

            For example if someone of an upper class gave a gift to someone of lower class, the receiver was expected to pay the giver back in services. A soldier who receives a sword from his lord is expected to fight for that lord, almost in exchange for the great gift.

            If someone of a lower class gave a gift to someone of upper class, it was in exchange for favours. For example, the receiver might favor the giver in a legal dispute, or by a profitable marriage for his family.

            Finally a gift given from one lord to another, was expected to be returned with a gift of similar worth and value. The idea was basically that whenever they looked at the gift that had been given to them, they would see the name inscribed in runes, and remember the favour they owed, or service that was due to be rendered.

            It is possible the the comb with the inscription ‘harji’ was from the harri to the northern tribe, it was probably just a part of a larger gift, this might have been a way for one tribe, to plead for favours, or peace, or an alliance with another tribe. When they looked at the gifts, they would be reminded of the friendship and kindness between the two tribes, and decide to act in their favor.

            Partially due to the supposed secret nature of runes, a makers mark became a huge status symbol amongst craftsmen. There was much mystery and allure behind runes evidenced by the fact that many finds in bogs have been inscribed with runes after they were destroyed, but before they were tossed in to the bogs. The runes may have acted as messages to the Gods, as some form of tribute to deity.

            The average Germanic person did not understand writing, so there was a magic tied into the runes, a soldier would prefer to have a sword with runic inscriptions on it, it was much more likely that this blade was magical, or blessed by diety. By the same token having a comb or even a ladle that had runes carved into it suggested the common tool was magical. The secrecy and magic behind runes helps explain why so few Runic inscriptions have been found, and why they never seem to be found for writing stories on papyrus or parchment.

            Futhark seems to be an alphabet that was born primarily from an era of conflict. It did not arise out of need, so much as it arose out of two cultures clashing, and mixing. Futhark did not cause the many wars and battles amongst Germanic tribes, but the same things that caused those battles, gave rise to futhark. A changing culture, and the painful mixing process that comes as a society advances.